The grandson of Babur, the founding emperor of the Mughal dynasty in India, Akbar was born in the desert regions of Rajasthan during his father Humayun’s exile from India, prompted by Sher Shah Suri’s reign. Humayun began to regain territories and re-establish his authority in Delhi before his death in 1556, at which point Akbar, just 13 years old, ascended to the throne.

From his teenage years onward, Akbar demonstrated exceptional military prowess, expanding his empire into Gujarat in the northwest, Bengal in the east, and the Deccan in the south. He pursued both conquest and diplomacy, forming alliances with Rajput rulers through marriage to Rajput princesses, as well as marrying Christian and Muslim women.

As a benevolent ruler, Akbar promoted religious tolerance and social harmony. He abolished discriminatory taxes against Hindus and stopped the enslavement of war prisoners and forced conversions to Islam. He declared himself the ultimate authority in legal matters derived from Sharia law, fostering intellectual discourse and debates among scholars of various faiths, including Muslim, Hindu, Zoroastrian, and Christian Jesuit.

In 1580, Akbar initiated a syncretic court religion called Din-i-Illahi, blending elements of Sufism and Zoroastrianism, with himself as its spiritual leader. This move, however, faced opposition from orthodox Muslims who feared the potential for idol worship.

The intellectual and religious developments of Akbar’s reign are chronicled in contemporary Persian texts such as the Akbar Nama by Abul-I-Fazl. Numerous scholarly works have been published about Akbar, including translations of primary sources and analyses of his policies and religious initiatives.

Here are some famous quotes attributed to Akbar:

1. “A true friend is the one who stands by you through thick and thin.”
2. “The strength of a kingdom lies in the happiness and contentment of its people.”
3. “In the diversity of our beliefs lies the strength of our unity.”
4. “Learning is a treasure that follows its owner everywhere.”
5. “Justice is the foundation of a prosperous society.”
6. “Do not be misled by appearances, for beauty is often found within.”
7. “Wisdom is not measured by age but by the depth of understanding.”
8. “Tolerance is the mark of a civilized society.”
9. “The greatest conquest is the conquest of oneself.”
10. “Let not fear dictate your actions, but rather courage and determination.”

Bibliography:

1. Abul-I-Fazl, The Akbar Nama, translated by Henry Beveridge (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1902-1939).
2. W.M. Thackston (ed.), The History of Akbar (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2014).
3. Bashir Ahmad, Akbar, the great Mughul: his new policy and his new religion (Delhi: Aakar Books, 2009).
4. S.M. Burke, Akbar: the greatest Mogul (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1989).
5. Irfan Habib (ed.), Akbar and his India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997).
6. Pierre du Jarric, Akbar and the Jesuits (London: Routledge, 1926).
7. Toni Patel et al, Akbar: a visionary monarch (Mumbai: Amar Chitra Katha, 1979).
8. Saiyid Atthar Abbas Rizvi, Religious and intellectual history of the Muslims in Akbar’s reign (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1975).
9. Andre Wink, Akbar (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009).